Antibiotic resistance with some microorganisms has become a worldwide concern. After World War II, penicillin resistance among gonococci and staphylococcal strains was first noted.177 Weidemann B. An international perspective on antimicrobial resistance Am J Med 1995 ; 99 (suppl 6A) : 19S
Cliquez ici pour aller à la section Références Methicillinresistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA) emerged in the 1970s. Penicillinase-producing Neisseria gonorrhoeae (PPNG) strains constitute most gonococcal strains from many geographical locations.3 Acar J.F., Goldstein F.W. Trends in bacterial resistance to fluoroquinolones Clin Infect Dis 1997 ; 24 (suppl 1) : S67
Cliquez ici pour aller à la section Références, 42 Doern G.V. Trends in antimicrobial susceptibility of bacterial pathogens of the respiratory tract Am J Med 1995 ; 99 (suppl 6B) : 3S
Cliquez ici pour aller à la section Références, 78 Jacoby G.A. Antimicrobial-resistant pathogens in the 1990s Annu Rev Med 1996 ; 47 : 169
Cliquez ici pour aller à la section Références, 79 Jacoby G.A. Prevalence and resistance mechanisms of common bacterial respiratory pathogens Clin Infect Dis 1994 ; 18 : 951 [cross-ref]
Cliquez ici pour aller à la section Références Aminoglycoside-resistant Pseudomonas aeruginosa was first noted after the widespread use of gentamicin.
Ceftazidime-resistant and ciprofloxacin-resistant P. aeruginosa remain a concern today. Resistance among respiratory pathogens (e.g., Streptococcus pneumoniae, Haemophilus influenzae, and Moraxella catarrhalis) has increased since the 1970s.8References 5,10,46,69,75,84,128,131,138,139,146,153,163,174,175,183,184.
Cliquez ici pour aller à la section Références, 33References 5,10,46,69,75,84,128,131,138,139,146,153,163,174,175,183,184.
Cliquez ici pour aller à la section Références, 43References 5,10,46,69,75,84,128,131,138,139,146,153,163,174,175,183,184.
Cliquez ici pour aller à la section Références, 85References 5,10,46,69,75,84,128,131,138,139,146,153,163,174,175,183,184.
Cliquez ici pour aller à la section Références, 97References 5,10,46,69,75,84,128,131,138,139,146,153,163,174,175,183,184.
Cliquez ici pour aller à la section Références, 114References 5,10,46,69,75,84,128,131,138,139,146,153,163,174,175,183,184.
Cliquez ici pour aller à la section Références, 146References 5,10,46,69,75,84,128,131,138,139,146,153,163,174,175,183,184.
Cliquez ici pour aller à la section Références Virtually all strains of M. catarrhalis are β-lactamase–producing strains resistant to penicillin and other β-lactam antibiotics. Ampicillin-resistant H. influenzae have increased and now are common in many areas worldwide.164References 5,10,46,69,75,84,128,131,138,139,146,153,163,174,175,183,184.
Cliquez ici pour aller à la section Références, 165References 5,10,46,69,75,84,128,131,138,139,146,153,163,174,175,183,184.
Cliquez ici pour aller à la section Références Relative penicillin-resistant pneumococci have been reported worldwide. Most penicillin resistance is relative, and highly penicillin-resistant strains remain uncommon.*References 5,10,46,69,75,84,128,131,138,139,146,153,163,174,175,183,184.
Among certain organisms, antibiotic resistance has not been a problem. There is no resistance among the atypical pulmonary pathogens (e.g., Legionella, Mycoplasma pneumoniae, Chlamydia pneumoniae, Q fever, tularemia, or psittacosis). Bacteroides fragilis and anaerobic organisms, in general, have not shown any clinically significant resistance.133 Rasmussen B.A., Bush K., Tally F.P. Antimicrobial resistance in anaerobes Clin Infect Dis 1997 ; 24 (suppl 1) : S110
Cliquez ici pour aller à la section Références Rickettsia and spirochetal organisms have not developed resistance.15 Breiman R.F., Butler J.C., Tenover F.C. , et al. Emergence of drug resistant pneumococcal infections in the United States JAMA 1994 ; 271 : 1831
Cliquez ici pour aller à la section Références, 63 Goldstein E.J.C., Citron D.M., Merriam C.V. Comparative in vitro activities of amoxicillin-clavulanate against aerobic and anaerobic bacteria isolated from antral puncture specimens from patients with sinusitis Antimicrob Agents Chemother 1999 ; 43 : 705
Cliquez ici pour aller à la section Références, 78 Jacoby G.A. Antimicrobial-resistant pathogens in the 1990s Annu Rev Med 1996 ; 47 : 169
Cliquez ici pour aller à la section Références, 98 Maesen F.P.V., Davies B.I., van Noord J.A. Doxycycline in respiratory infections: A re-assessment after 17 years J Antimicrob Chemother 1986 ; 18 : 531
Cliquez ici pour aller à la section Références, 112 National Nosocomial Infections Surveillance (NNIS) System Intensive care antimicrobial resistance epidemiology (ICARE) surveillance report, data summary from January 1996 through December 1997 Am J Infect Control 1999 ; 27 : 279
Cliquez ici pour aller à la section Références, 173 Virk A., Steckelberg J.M. Clinical aspects of antimicrobial resistance Mayo Clin Proc 2000 ; 75 : 200
Cliquez ici pour aller à la section Références, 177 Weidemann B. An international perspective on antimicrobial resistance Am J Med 1995 ; 99 (suppl 6A) : 19S
Cliquez ici pour aller à la section Références
A distinction must be made between increased prevalence versus the emergence of resistant organisms, which is the case with enterococci. In the past, most enterococci were of the Enterococcus faecalis variety (i.e., sensitive to ampicillin and vancomycin). Enterococcus faecium, which constitutes nearly all vancomycin-resistant enterococci (VRE) strains, is an example of increased prevalence of this organism to be distinguished from increasing vancomycin resistance. VRE is no more resistant now than it was previously, but it is more prevalent now. VRE is not an example of increasing antibiotic resistance but rather a change in the selective pressures of the fecal flora favoring the widespread emergence of VRE as a colonizer or cause of infection in many hospitals.*References21,40,53,54,59,107,108,117,119,143,179.
Certain organisms always have been highly resistant or resistant to multiple antibiotics (e.g., Acinetobacter baumanii, non-aeruginosa Pseudomonas [Burkholderia, Stenotrophomonas]). Frequently, Acinetobacter is reported in the literature as being highly resistant or multiresistant to several antibiotics.7 Appleman M.D., Belzberg H., Citron D.M. , et al. In vitro activities of nontraditional antimicrobials against multiresistant Acinetobacter baumannii strains isolated in an intensive care unit outbreak Antimicrob Agents Chemother 2000 ; 44 : 1035 [cross-ref]
Cliquez ici pour aller à la section Références, 9 Aubry-Damon H., Courvalin P. Bacterial resistance to antimicrobial agents: Selected problems in France, 1996–1998 Emerg Infect Dis 1999 ; 5 : 315
Cliquez ici pour aller à la section Références, 35 Cunha B.A. Antibiotic resistance: A historical perspective Semin Respir Crit Care Med 2000 ; 21 : 3
Cliquez ici pour aller à la section Références, 103 Mobbs K.J., van Saene H.K.F., Sunderland D. , et al. Oropharyngeal gram-negative bacillary carriage Chest 1999 ; 115 : 1570
Cliquez ici pour aller à la section Références, 140 Ruiz J., Nunez M.L., Perez J. , et al. Evolution of resistance among clinical isolates of Acinetobacter over a 6-year period Eur J Clin Microbiol Infect Dis 1999 ; 18 : 292
Cliquez ici pour aller à la section Références, 162 Takahashi A., Yomoda S., Kobayashi I. , et al. Detection of carbapenemase-producing Acinetobacter baumanii in a hospital J Clin Microbiol 2000 ; 38 : 526
Cliquez ici pour aller à la section Références, 185 Wust J., Frei R., Swiss Cefepime Study Group Multi-center study of the in vitro activity of cefepime in comparison with five other broad-spectrum antibiotics against clinical isolates of gram-positive and gram-negative bacteria from hospitalized patients in Switzerland Clin Microbiol Infect 1999 ; 5 : 262
Cliquez ici pour aller à la section Références A. baumanii was never very sensitive to many antibiotics.
Terminology is important in describing and defining resistance. Changes in antibiotic breakpoints defining sensitive, intermediate, or resistant strains have profound effects on the apparent incidence of antibiotic resistance.
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