After the first attempt of Hufnagel<sup>66 Hufnagel C.A. The surgical correction of aortic insufficiency Bull Georgetown U Med Center 1953 ;  6 : 60

Cliquez ici pour aller à la section Références</sup> in 1952, the advent of the cardiopulmonary bypass machine in 1953 by Gibbon<sup>55 Gibbon J.H. The application of a mechanical heart and lung apparatus to cardiac surgery Minn Med 1954 ;  37 : 171

Cliquez ici pour aller à la section Références</sup> made possible the implantation of a prosthetic cardiac valve in its anatomic position. Harken et al<sup>60 Harken D.E., Soroff M.S., Taylor W.J. , et al. Partial and complete prostheses in aortic insufficiency J Thorac Cardiovasc Surg 1960 ;  40 : 744

Cliquez ici pour aller à la section Références</sup> successfully replaced the aortic valve and Starr and Edwards<sup>126 Starr A., Edwards M.L. Mitral replacement: Clinical experience with a ball-valve prosthesis Ann Surg 1961 ;  154 : 726  [cross-ref]

Cliquez ici pour aller à la section Références</sup> the mitral valve with mechanical prostheses in 1960. A few years later, Carpentier<sup>29 Carpentier A. From valvular xenograft to valvular bioprosthesis (1965–1977) Med Instrum 1977 ;  11 : 98

Cliquez ici pour aller à la section Références, 30 Carpentier A., Lemaigre G., Robert L. , et al. Biological factors affecting long-term results of valvular heterografts J Thorac Cardiovasc Surg 1969 ;  58 : 467

Cliquez ici pour aller à la section Références</sup> introduced the treatment of tissue valves with gluteraldehyde. In 1970, the first bioprosthesis, the Hancock porcine valve, was available. Since these early days, significant evolution in valve design and types of prosthetic valves has occurred. The current types of mechanical prosthetic valves are caged-ball, tilting-disc, and bileaflet. Heterograft porcine tissue valves from pig aortic valves and bioprostheses from pericardium, usually bovine, have been constructed.<sup>25 Braunwald E. Prosthetic cardiac valves Heart Disease Philadelphia: WB Saunders (1997).  1061

Cliquez ici pour aller à la section Références, 37 Cohn L.H., Collins J.J., DiSesa V.J. , et al. Fifteen-year experience with 1678 Hancock porcine bioprosthetic heart valve replacements Ann Surg 1989 ;  210 : 435  [cross-ref]

Cliquez ici pour aller à la section Références, 40 Cosgrove D.M. Carpentier pericardial valve Semin Thorac Cardiovasc Surg 1996 ;  8 : 269

Cliquez ici pour aller à la section Références, 74 Khan S., Chaux A., Matloff J. , et al. The St. Jude Medical valve: Experience with 1,000 cases J Thorac Cardiovasc Surg 1994 ;  108 : 1010

Cliquez ici pour aller à la section Références, 95 Nitter-Hauge S., Abdelnoor M., Svennevig J.L. Fifteen-year experience with the Medtronic-Hall valve prosthesis: A follow-up study of 1104 consecutive patients Circulation 1996 ;  94 : II105

Cliquez ici pour aller à la section Références, 102 Perier P., Mihaileanu S., Fabiani J.N. , et al. Long-term evaluation of the Carpentier-Edwards pericardial valve in the aortic position J Cardiac Surg 1991 ;  6 : 589

Cliquez ici pour aller à la section Références, 137 Walley V.M., Keon W.J. Patterns of failure in Ionescu-Shiley bovine pericardial bioprosthetic valves J Thorac Cardiovasc Surg 1987 ;  93 : 925

Cliquez ici pour aller à la section Références</sup> Allograft (homograft) aortic valves taken from cadavers are used for aortic valve replacement,<sup>100 Ozdogan M.E., Oktar L., Gunaydin S. , et al. Mitral and aortic valve replacement using fresh unstented pulmonary and aortic homografts J Heart Valve Dis 1996 ;  5 : 181

Cliquez ici pour aller à la section Références, 16 Barratt-Boyes B.G., Christie G.W. What is the best bioprosthetic operation for the small aortic root?: Allograft, porcine, pericardial? Stented or unstented J Cardiac Surg 1994 ;  9 : 158

Cliquez ici pour aller à la section Références, 143 Yacoub M., Rasmi N.R., Sundt T.M. , et al. Fourteen-year experience with homovital homografts for aortic valve replacement J Thorac Cardiovasc Surg 1995 ;  110 : 186  [cross-ref]

Cliquez ici pour aller à la section Références</sup> and, more recently, allograft mitral valves have been implanted.<sup>1 Acar C., Tolan M., Berrebi A. , et al. Homograft replacement of the mitral valve: Graft selection, technique of implantation, and results in forty-three patients J Thorac Cardiovasc Surg 1996 ;  111 : 367  [cross-ref]

Cliquez ici pour aller à la section Références</sup> Although significant modifications in valve design, prosthetic materials, and surgical techniques have improved prosthetic valve function, the hemodynamic profile of prosthetic valves is still inferior to that of native valves. Furthermore, patients with prosthetic valves may develop several complications. In fact, a severe form of native valvular heart disease is substituted with a milder one at the time of surgery.

Complications after cardiac valvular operations were defined by the Ad Hoc Liaison Committee for Standardizing Definitions of Prosthetic Heart Valve Morbidity.<sup>50 Edmunds L.H., Clark R.E., Cohn L.H. , et al. Guidelines for reporting morbidity and mortality after cardiac valvular operations. Ad Hoc Liaison Committee for Standardizing Definitions of Prosthetic Heart Valve Morbidity of The American Association of Thoracic Surgery and The Society of Thoracic Surgeons J Thorac Cardiovasc Surg 1996 ;  112 : 708  [cross-ref]

Cliquez ici pour aller à la section Références</sup> These include structural valvular deterioration (wear, fracture, poppet escape, calcification, leaflet tear), nonstructural dysfunction (entrapment by pannus, tissue, or suture; paravalvular leak; inappropriate sizing or positioning; and hemolytic anemia), valve thrombosis, embolism, bleeding events, and endocarditis. This article describes the diagnostic methods used for the evaluation of prosthetic valve function and their application in the assessment of prosthetic valve stenosis and regurgitation. The detection of morphologic abnormalities of prosthetic valves that are common underlying causes of valve malfunction is also discussed, and unusual complications after cardiac valve surgery are described.